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Formation of the USSR (1917-1924)  

On the way to the constitution of the USSR

On April 27, 1923, the Presidium of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR adopted a resolution on the completion of the activities of all previously formed commissions for the development of individual chapters of the Union Constitution and, in order to prepare the final draft of the Constitution, forms another, the so-called Expanded Commission, which included 25 people representing the Union republics. There were 14 people from the RSFSR, including 5 representatives from the autonomous republics, from the Ukrainian SSR-5, and from the BSSR and the ZSFSR, 3 people each. MI Kalinin was placed at the head of the Commission. The work of this Commission was based on the draft Constitution of the USSR drawn up in February of the same year. In May, the draft Constitution was discussed in special commissions of the CEC of the union republics. The enlarged commission began its work in the second half of May. An important stage in its work were the meetings of June 8-16, 1923.

On June 13, at the suggestion of M.V. Frunze on the procedure for further work of the Commission, a resolution was adopted so that before the session of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR, only the draft Constitution (Treaty) would be discussed in the Commission, first of all, starting to discuss the issue of the all-Union budget, the Supreme Court, union emblem and flag. Further, it was decided to turn to the consideration of the general provision on the people's commissariats and then to submit all these questions to the next session of the USSR Central Executive Committee. It was decided to postpone the provisions on individual people's commissariats until the next session of the USSR Central Executive Committee. In the meantime, people's commissariats were instructed to work on the basis of the previous regulations on them. [1] By a special decision of this Commission dated June 16, the Presidium of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR was instructed to "develop the issue of equality of languages ​​in all government and judicial institutions." [2]

Of great interest are not only specific resolutions of the Expanded Commission, but also a substantive discussion of certain issues. At the very first meeting of the Commission on June 8, an exchange of views took place on the question of whether to call the Declaration and the Treaty on the Formation of the USSR the Constitution of the USSR. Kh. G. Rakovsky, in general, opposed the use of the term "constitution", but M. I. Kalinin, D. Z. Manuilsky, M. V. Frunze insisted on adopting a constitution. At the same time, Kalinin emphasized: “The first paragraph says: as soon as individual Soviet states are united into a single union state, then, of course, there must be a Constitution of the Soviet state ...”. At the same time, he referred to the decision of the Constitutional Commission of the Central Committee of the RCP (b), which spoke in favor of adopting not the Treaty, but the Constitution. At this meeting, however, It was decided not to prejudge the question of how to call the all-Union fundamental law - the Treaty or the Constitution. Such a decision was made only at the last meeting, where it was considered expedient to call the fundamental law the Constitution of the USSR.[3]

On June 14, a very important constitutional provision on changing the territory of each of the Soviet republics became the subject of lively discussion. N. A. Skrypnik saw a huge difference between the wording of the draft submitted by the Central Committee Commission, which stated that "the territory of each of the Soviet republics cannot be changed without consent" and the wording "can only be changed with consent." Then he added - "The territory of each of the Union Republics and its constitution can only be changed by the decision of its supreme authorities." A number of other members of the Commission joined the discussion on this issue: People's Commissar of Justice of the RSFSR D. I. Kursky, member of the Presidium of the CEC of the USSR T. V. Sapronov, secretary of the CEC of the USSR AS. Enukidze, People’s Commissar of Justice of Belarus A. Kh. Getner, candidate member of the Presidium of the USSR Central Executive Committee S. M. Ter-Gabrielyan, Plenipotentiary Representative of the Ukrainian SSR in Moscow M. N. Poloz, Kh. G.[4]

The discussion of the item on union citizenship was just as lively, in which a number of members of the Commission took part, including Stalin, with whom Rakovsky again argued, however, on a private issue. [5] On June 16, the Commission adopted a resolution to ask the Presidium of the Central Executive Committee of the Union to develop the issue of equality of languages ​​in all government and judicial institutions of the USSR. On the same day, a number of other decisions were made on the relationship between the Presidium of the Central Executive Committee of the Union and the Council of People's Commissars and the commissariats, on symbols, etc. [6] In general, on June 16, the Enlarged Commission completed the article-by-article consideration of the draft Constitution, adopting the text of the draft. At the same time, projects submitted by the RSFSR, Ukraine and Belarus were taken into account. The Transcaucasian Federation did not develop an independent project and adopted the draft of the RSFSR as a basis, giving only some amendments to it. [7] However, this project was not final. It was submitted to the constitutional commission of the Central Committee of the RCP (b) and there it was again considered article by article by making clarifications to a number of wordings, and then submitted to the Plenum of the Central Committee of the RCP (b), which met on June 26, 1923 [8] , the Plenum heard the report of I.V. Stalin on the Constitution of the USSR and generally approved the submitted draft. Further, the project was discussed at sessions of the CEC of the Union republics.

The second session of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee of the 10th convocation began its work on June 29, 1923.

She, after listening to the report of T. V. Sapronov, unanimously ratified the Declaration on the Formation of the USSR and the Treaty adopted at the First Congress of Soviets of the USSR, taking into account the amendments made by the Expanded Commission of the USSR Central Executive Committee. The draft Constitution was also approved by the third session of the All-Ukrainian CEC, the third session of the CEC of Belarus and the second session of the CEC of Transcaucasia.

The next important step towards the adoption of the Constitution of the USSR was the Second Session of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR, which opened on July 6, 1923. Information on the work of the Constitutional Commission was heard and the draft Constitution was again discussed chapter by chapter. On the same day, the session adopted a resolution on the Constitution of the USSR. The very first paragraph of this resolution proclaimed: "The Fundamental Law (Constitution) of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics shall be approved and immediately put into effect." [9] The same resolution provided for the submission of the Constitution for final approval by the II Congress of Soviets of the USSR, and also before the formation of the Presidium of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR, all powers, by virtue of Chapters 4 and 5 of the Constitution of the USSR, should be assigned to the Presidium of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR, elected at the 1st session of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR on December 30, 1922, consisting of 19 members.

On the same day, July 6, the session also adopted a number of other resolutions: "On the preparation of regulations on the Central Executive Committee and the Council of People's Commissars and individual people's commissariats of the USSR", "On the Creation of the Council of Labor and Defense of the USSR", "On the development of regulations on the Supreme Court of the SSR”, “On the State Bank of the USSR”, “On the Establishment of the Central Statistical Administration of the USSR”. The next day, on July 7, the session decided to instruct the Presidium of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee to take measures to liquidate the People's Commissariat for Nationalities of the RSFSR, which will indeed be liquidated by May 1924 [10] as having fulfilled its mission to prepare for the formation of national republics and regions and uniting them into the Union of Republics.

This session approved the composition of the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR and elected V. I. Lenin as its chairman. Immediately after the session, the Presidium of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR began to fulfill its duties within the framework provided for by the Constitution of the USSR. Actually, it is from this session that we can talk about the normal functioning of the supreme organs of state power of the USSR. The Presidium of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR since that time has become a regularly functioning supreme body of power in the USSR. Before the second session of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR, it met only twice - on January 10 and April 27, after this session it meets on July 13 and 27. August 3, 10, 17, 24, September 7, 11, 14, 28, October 10, etc. [11]

From July 6, 1923, the foreign relations of the union republics also came under the jurisdiction of the USSR. By the time of the proclamation of the USSR, that is, by December 30, 1922, the RSFSR had diplomatic relations with Afghanistan, Germany, Persia, Mongolia, Poland, Turkey and Finland. In addition, six states - Norway, Austria, Czechoslovakia, China, Italy and Great Britain recognized the RSFSR de facto. The Ukrainian SSR had diplomatic relations with Poland, Turkey and Germany, and its representatives also in Austria, Italy and Czechoslovakia. In general, the Ukrainian SSR was recognized de jure by Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Germany, Poland, Turkey and de facto by Austria, Italy and Czechoslovakia. [12] Belarus had diplomatic relations with Poland and Germany; Transcaucasian Federation - with Turkey and Germany. In addition, Armenia had official relations with Iran, and Georgia with Czechoslovakia. [13] At the end of 1922, there was an embassy of the Turkish Grand People's Assembly, an Iranian diplomatic mission and a general consulate, an Italian mission, a Czechoslovak trade delegation and consulate, and a German mission in Tbilisi; in Batumi - the consulates of Turkey, the Iranian, Italian, Czechoslovak vice-consulates, the consular agency of Germany; in Sukhumi - the Iranian consular agency; in Poti - the consular agency of Italy; in Baku - the embassy of Turkey, the Iranian diplomatic mission, the consulates of Italy and Germany; in Ganja - the Iranian consulate; in Yerevan - Turkish embassy, ​​Iranian diplomatic mission; Turkish consulate in Alexandropol. [fourteen]

On July 13, 1923, the “Decree of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR on the appeal of the Presidium of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR to all peoples and governments of the world” was adopted, which was previously considered by the Politburo of the Central Committee of the RCP (b). This Decree, signed by M. Kalinin and AEnukidze, spoke about the reasons for creating a single union state from formerly separate states, although they were bound by union treaties. These reasons included the imperative expediency of uniting the armed forces in the face of an external danger, an economic necessity requiring systematic leadership from a single economic center of the entire Union. The union there was called a voluntary association of equal peoples who have the right to freely exit and at the same time provide an opportunity for all socialist Soviet republics that may arise in the future to join it. Further, it was said about the creation of unified all-Union commissariats, etc. The Decree also emphasized: “Being a natural ally of the oppressed peoples, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics seeks peaceful and friendly relations and economic cooperation with all peoples. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics sets itself the goal of promoting the interests of the working people of the whole world.[fifteen]

On July 13, 1923, a resolution of the Presidium of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR was also adopted, which emphasized that, in accordance with the powers given to it by the second session of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR, the Presidium “began to work as the highest authority of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, according to Ch. Fifth Constitution of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. [16] On the same day, the Presidium also decided to approve and publish all decrees and resolutions of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee and its Presidium, so that they would have their force throughout the USSR, and also invited the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR to immediately begin its activities by virtue of the sixth chapter of the Constitution Union of the SSR. It was also proposed that the people's commissariats of the Union begin their activities, form the Council of Labor and Defense, establish the Central Statistical Office of the USSR, transform the State Bank of the RSFSR into the State Bank of the USSR, appoint boards of people's commissariats of the USSR, form the State Planning Committee of the USSR and other allied institutions. In parallel, it was instructed to form commissions to develop appropriate regulations on the people's commissariats, the Supreme Court and the OGPU of the USSR, as well as on the budget of the USSR. [17]

By virtue of these resolutions, corresponding commissions were also created. So, at the same time on July 13, the Presidium of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR creates a Commission of 10 people headed by Kalinin, which was instructed to develop regulations on the Central Executive Committee of the USSR, the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR, the general regulation on the people's commissariats and on each people's commissariat separately. At the same time, a Commission was created to develop a regulation on the budget of the USSR and the already existing Commission for the preparation of a regulation on the Supreme Court of the USSR and the OGPU of the USSR was approved. But the direct management of the activities of all these commissions was carried out by the Commission of the Central Committee of the RCP (b). [eighteen]

At a meeting of the Presidium of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR on August 3, 1923, a resolution was adopted to celebrate the day of the adoption of the Constitution of the USSR throughout the USSR on July 6. [nineteen] Thus, from July 6, 1923, the Constitution of the USSR was not only put into effect, but this day was declared a holiday throughout the country. In parallel, the process of creating allied government institutions was going on. Since V. I. Lenin was ill, the leadership of the Council of People's Commissars was carried out by five of his deputies: L. B. Kamenev, A. I. Rykov, A. D. Tsyurupa, V. Ya. Chubar, M. D. Orakhelashvili. Since July 1923, the Ukrainian Chubar was the chairman of the Council of People's Commissars of Ukraine, and the Georgian Orakhelashvili was the chairman of the Council of People's Commissars of the TSFSR, so they performed, first of all, their direct duties. From February 2, 1924, Rykov will become the chairman of the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR. Rykov and Tsyurupa were Russian by nationality, and Kamenev was Jewish. Of the five deputies of the Council of People's Commissars, only Orakhelashvili had a higher education, the other four had a secondary education. [twenty] The Council of People's Commissars of the USSR was the direct successor of the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR. In addition to the chairman and five of his deputies, the first Council of People's Commissars of the Union also included 10 people's commissars and the chairman of the OGPU with an advisory vote. [21] Naturally, when selecting the leaders of the Council of People's Commissars, problems arose related to the necessary representation from the union republics.

There were also problems in the formation of the allied people's commissariats. People's Commissariats of the RSFSR for Foreign Affairs, Foreign Trade, Communications, Posts and Telegraphs, for Military and Naval Affairs were transformed into union ones. The staff of the people's commissariats at that time was still formed mainly from former employees of the administrative apparatus and specialists from the pre-revolutionary period. For employees who were workers before the revolution in 1921-1922. accounted for only 2.7%, which was explained by the lack of a sufficient number of literate workers. [22] These employees automatically flowed from the Russian people's commissariats to the union ones with a very small number of employees transferred from the national republics.

The most important task of the Council of People's Commissars then was the revival of economic life. During the Civil War, labor discipline noticeably decreased and absenteeism reached 30–40%, the intensity and productivity of labor fell by about 10–15% compared to 1913, and real wages decreased. The entire amount of wages on average in the RSFSR in 1919-1921. was 38-40% of the pre-war level. However, since 1922 it began to rise and in the spring of 1923 it reached 60%. [23] In the early 20s. nevertheless, the restoration of the national economy proceeded at a rather significant pace. In one of his speeches in December 1923, A. I. Rykov noted a noticeable growth in industry. If 1920 was taken as 100% for this indicator, then 1921-119%, 1922-146%, and 1923-216%. However, in 1923, the volume of industrial production compared to 1913 was only 40.3%, and agricultural production - 75%. [24] Of course, the main thing in union building depended on economic success.

Meanwhile, work on the further continuation of this construction did not stop. In August 1923, the first meeting of the chairmen of the Councils of People's Commissars of the Union republics took place, and on September 29 of the same year, the second. [25] The Commission of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR for the preparation of regulations on the Central Executive Committee of the USSR, the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR and the People's Commissariats of the USSR met on August 21, September 13, October 22, 23 and 24. As early as August 24, 1923, the Presidium of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR approved the order of the day for the third session of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR, [26] whose work opened on November 6 and completed on November 12 of the same year. All representatives of the CEC of the union republics made their reports, while work was going on in the commissions preparing the decisions of this session. A significant amount of work was done by the commission, which was entrusted with the development of regulations on the central authorities of the USSR, taking into account the amendments proposed by the union republics to the projects submitted for approval by the session. A lively exchange of views took place, for example, in the Commission that developed the "Regulations on the Central Executive Committee of the USSR." Not everyone agreed with the bicameral system, since some considered the creation of the Council of Nationalities unnecessary and advocated simplifying the work of the sessions of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR. subdivided into 79 sections. It provided for both regular and extraordinary sessions of the CEC of the USSR, and regular sessions were to be convened three times a year. Special chapters were devoted to the Allied Council, the Council of Nationalities and the conciliation commission, in case of possible disagreements between them. Joint meetings of both chambers were also envisaged, to which a separate chapter was also devoted. The functions of the Presidium of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR were described in detail. Among other things, it also provided for the following: “The Presidium of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR issues decrees, resolutions and orders, considers and approves draft decrees and resolutions submitted by the Council of People’s Commissars of the USSR, individual departments of the USSR,[27]

The Presidium of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR also received the right to cancel the decisions of the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR, the right to amnesty, the right to pardon, etc. The relationship between the Presidium of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR and state institutions and departments was to be carried out by the Chairman and Secretary of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR. At the same time, the entire secretarial and technical apparatus of the CEC of the USSR was to be under the jurisdiction and under the leadership of the secretary of the CEC of the USSR. On the same day, November 12, the regulations on the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR and on the people's commissariats of the USSR were adopted. When discussing the provision on the Council of People's Commissars, when the turn came to the paragraph on commissions created by the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR, in particular on the Commission for Legislative Assumptions, the Administrative and Financial Commission and others, an addition was made, by virtue of which all commissions under the Council of People's Commissars and the STO, which had administrative and administrative rights ,[28]

By virtue of the regulation on the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR, this body was formed by the Central Executive Committee of the USSR and was its executive and administrative body. In addition to the chairman and his deputies, the Council of People's Commissars included people's commissars for foreign affairs, military and naval affairs, foreign trade, communications, post and telegraph, workers' and peasants' inspection, labor, food, finance and the chairman of the Supreme Council of the National Economy. Representatives of the union republics, including chairmen of the councils of people's commissars of the union republics, could participate in an advisory capacity along with representatives of some other bodies. The jurisdiction of the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR also included "the resolution of disagreements between the councils of people's commissars of the Union republics on issues within the competence of the Council of People's Commissars of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, as well as disagreements, both between the people's commissars of the USSR, and between the latter and the councils of people's commissars of the union republics. The central executive committees of the union republics, their presidiums, and republican councils of people's commissars also had the right to submit questions for consideration by the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR.[29]

The "General Regulations on the People's Commissariats of the USSR", also adopted on November 12, provided for the creation of two types of commissariats - all-Union, that is, uniform for the entire USSR, and united. The All-Union Commissariats included: Foreign Affairs, Military and Naval Affairs, Foreign Trade, Communications, Posts and Telegraphs; to the united: the Supreme Council of the National Economy, Food, Labor, Finance, Workers' and Peasants' Inspection. This "General Provision" provided for the compilation of its own special provisions for each commissariat, subject to approval by the Central Executive Committee of the USSR. It provided for the suspension by the Central Executive Committees of the union republics or their presidiums of those orders of the people's commissariats of the USSR that did not comply with the Constitution of the USSR, the legislation of the Union or the legislation of the union republic.

All-Union commissariats were given the right to have their own representatives under the Union republics who were directly subordinate to them. These representatives were nominated by the Commissariat of the USSR directly or at the suggestion of the Central Executive Committee of the Union Republic and were subject to approval by the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR. Moreover, for all nominated candidates, the recall of the Central Executive Committee of the union republic, which had the right to challenge the appointed commissioner, was mandatory. These representatives of the All-Union People's Commissariats were to be members of the Council of People's Commissars of the Union Republics with an advisory or decisive vote in accordance with the decision of the Central Executive Committee of the Union Republic or its Presidium. The orders of the all-Union commissariats were binding for direct execution throughout the entire territory of the USSR. The united commissariats of the USSR had to carry out all their tasks and directives through the people's commissariats of the same name in the union republics. The heads of the commissariats of the union republics of the same name were subject to appointment and recall by the Central Executive Committees of the union republics.[30]

This third session of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR adopted a resolution on the new State Flag of the USSR. She instructed the Presidium of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR to form a commission consisting of representatives of the Union republics, as appointed by the Presidium of the Central Executive Committee, two representatives from each, to prepare draft laws in accordance with Article 1 of the Constitution of the USSR establishing: the general principles of land management and land use, the use of subsoil, forests and waters throughout the territory of the USSR; fundamentals of the judiciary and legal proceedings, as well as civil and criminal legislation of the Union; basic labor laws; general principles in the field of public education, the foundations of legislation in the field of union citizenship, in relation to the rights of foreigners. [31]

At this session, much attention was also paid to economic issues, primarily state industry, as well as finance. A report was heard on the organization of the state industry of the USSR, where the characteristics of the state industry of the USSR were given and the main tasks of the Supreme Economic Council of the USSR were set. In accordance with a list worked out in advance, a number of enterprises and trusts were assigned to the allied Supreme Council of National Economy, that is, enterprises of all-Union significance were singled out from the total number of enterprises. On November 12, the session approved the decree "On the procedure for managing industrial enterprises of all-Union significance, which are under the jurisdiction of the Supreme Economic Council of the USSR", to which a corresponding list of enterprises was attached. 75 out of 130 trusts were assigned to the Supreme Council of National Economy of the USSR, moreover, the trusts that united the largest enterprises, which employed 75% of all workers. Primarily, the entire military industry was subject to union subordination, while the economic councils of the union republics retained the right to receive information, reports, reports on the work of enterprises located on the territory of a given republic. In addition to defense enterprises, enterprises that provided for the main state needs of a strategic nature and required planned procurement, protection of the economic interests of the Union on the world stage, and the implementation of a unified plan for the restoration of industry and transport of the USSR were also subject to union subordination. Almost the entire metallurgical industry, including Yugostal, was subject to federal subordination. The Central Board of the State United Machine-Building Plants, the main Ural trusts, and the trusts of the copper industry passed into the same subordination. Thus, almost all the production of iron and steel, excluding trusts of local importance, passed into the jurisdiction of the Union.

All-Union leadership was subject to the entire industry of non-ferrous metals, which had defense significance. In addition, four trusts that united the electrical industry were subject to all-Union subordination; gold and platinum trusts; coal basins - Donetsk, Kuznetsk, Podmoskovny, Kizelovsky; Baku and Emba oil fields; enterprises for the production of steam locomotives, as well as other machines and mechanisms for the needs of transport. The Supreme Council of National Economy of the USSR was transferred to enterprises of the chemical industry and 6 trusts from 14 forest industries, which were engaged in large-scale export operations. The largest trusts of the textile industry, including flax trusts, a hemp trust, as well as the Sugar Trust, the Tea Department, and 70% of the entire paper industry, passed into union subordination. Thus, the leading branches of industry were transferred to the jurisdiction of the Union.[32] According to the regulation on the Supreme Economic Council of November 12, 1923, he concentrated the operational management of large-scale industry and significantly changed its structure. Management of the state industry, which is under the jurisdiction of the Supreme Council of National Economy of the USSR, was carried out by the Central Directorate of State Industry, subdivided into directorates created according to industry. This department appointed the heads of enterprises and trusts, which were then approved by the Presidium of the Supreme Economic Council. The leadership of the industry of republican and local subordination of the Supreme Economic Council of the USSR was to be carried out through its Main Economic Directorate. [33] Consequently, despite the NEP, the economic role of the state, which had increased enormously since 1917, [34] continued to be preserved.

The session also heard a report from the People's Commissariat of Finance of the USSR on the country's financial situation. The Decree on the State Bank of the USSR was adopted at the 2nd session of the CEC of the USSR on July 6, 1923, in accordance with which the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR and the Presidium of the CEC of the USSR were instructed to revise the charter of the State Bank of the RSFSR and transform it into the State Bank of the USSR. [35] At the 3rd session on November 12, the “Temporary Regulations on Local Finances” and the “Regulations on the Property of Local Councils” are approved. In accordance with the Constitution of the USSR already in force, the unified state budget of the USSR was approved, which included the budgets of the Union republics. [36] According to the “Temporary Regulations”, a list of institutions in charge of local finances was determined, as well as the rights and obligations of central and local authorities in the field of finance. A clear delineation of the role of local budgets made it possible to establish a financial basis for the development of the regional economy, made it possible to mobilize internal sources, thereby increasing national revenues and, at the same time, creating the interest of local authorities in increasing these revenues. [37] At that time, the process of unification of the tax system on a federal scale, that is, the process of introducing a unified all-Union tax system, was also underway. This, indeed, was a process and, for example, on the territory of the ZSFSR, it will end only by April 1, 1924, taking into account some local features. In general, in the 1923–1924 business year, the republics of Transcaucasia received significant subsidies from the union budget. [38]

The 3rd session of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR played a very significant role in completing the construction of the all-Union administrative apparatus and in establishing economic ties of a new type. In modern literature, not without reason, it is noted that the formation of the Central Directorate of State Industry (Tsugprom) as part of the Supreme Economic Council of the USSR was an expression of strengthening in the country's economy in 1923–1924. centrally planned principles. Indeed, the weakening in 1921-1922. Vertical ties in industry caused the desire of central state structures to strengthen ties with localities, and from the second half of 1922 there was a departure from the policy of decentralization in the management of industry. [39] The strengthening of the centralized principle in the economy led to the subordination of local enterprises to the center and caused opposition from some leaders of the republics. Characteristic in this regard was the position of Kh. G. Rakovsky, even when he was chairman of the Ukrainian Council of People's Commissars, expressed in one of his speeches at the XII Congress of the RCP (b). [40] The discussion between the representatives of the center and the suburbs thus affected the economic sphere as well. However, discussions on economic issues at that time were quite frequent. One of them concerned the problems of regulating the economy of the public sector on the basis of a combination of planned and market methods of management, since a holistic mechanism for such regulation did not take shape. E. A. Preobrazhensky in 1922 even put forward the idea of ​​considering the NEP as a commodity-socialist economy. [41]

Notable work was carried out in the field of language, education, science, and culture. Entered into the practice of the meeting of the people's commissars of education of the Soviet republics. One of these meetings took place in September 1923, another, especially representative, took place on December 1-4 of the same year. The issue of national schools was considered at a meeting of the State Commission for Education chaired by M. N. Pokrovsky on September 23, 1923 [42] Rectors' meetings of representatives of all the Soviet republics were also regularly held, at which the rectors of all the country's largest universities were usually represented. In October 1924, the twelfth such rector's meeting was held in Moscow. Systematic work was also carried out to create an allied network of scientific institutions, experienced personnel were sent to the national republics to strengthen local universities and scientific institutions. [43] As early as the beginning of the 20s. The first attempt to create a general list of architectural and antiquity monuments of world significance also applies. It was approved at the April 1922 conference - at the conference of representatives of the union and autonomous republics, as well as national regions. There were not only republican, but also all-union federations of associations of writers, artists, musicians. In the second half of the 20s. Associations of proletarian writers existed in 12 Soviet republics. There were also 20 branches of the Association of Artists of Revolutionary Russia. [44] There were also various creative associations of an intra-republican nature. Only in Belarus in the second half of the 20s. seven literary groups are noted. [45]

An important step towards completing the construction of a single union state was the Second Congress of Soviets of the USSR, which worked from January 26 to February 2, 1924. The Congress met five days after the death of V. I. Lenin, and the first resolutions of the congress concerned the perpetuation of his memory. In total, 2124 delegates attended the congress, including 1540 with a decisive vote. 77% of the congress delegates were representatives of the RSFSR, 16% of Ukraine, 5% of the ZSFSR and 2% of Belarus. The national composition of the congress delegates was as follows: Russians - 61%, Ukrainians - 12%, Belarusians - 2%, representatives of the Turkic peoples - 7%, peoples of the Caucasus - 5%, Jews - 7%, Latvians and Estonians - 3% and other nationalities too 3%. [46]

This was the first Congress of Soviets of the USSR, where the report of the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR on the activities of the Soviet government for 1923 was heard and discussed. For the first time at such a high forum, the report of the People's Commissar of Finance of the USSR on the country's budget was also heard and discussed, and a special and rather extensive resolution was adopted " On Measures in the Field of the Financial Policy of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics”, which, first of all, provided for the most rapid development of productive forces and the revival of the country's trade turnover. Such effective means in the same resolution included monetary reform, further reform of the tax business, real state and local budgets, as well as a sharp increase in non-tax revenues.

As regards the role of the republics in the financial field, in the area of ​​increasing non-tax revenues, the most serious attention was paid to the most rapid consideration of the income potential of the republics in order to use them to the fullest. It was also entrusted to the People's Commissariat for Finance of the USSR to continue its work on the precise delimitation and establishment of the budgetary rights of the Union and individual republics. The corresponding draft was decided to be submitted to the next session of the CEC of the USSR. The Presidium of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR was instructed to create a special commission to consider the question of the budgetary rights of the Union and the republics.

With regard to the local budget, the same resolution also ordered to speed up the delimitation of property of all-Union, republican and local significance, in accordance with the resolution of the 3rd session of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR and the law on the property rights of local Soviets. This resolution also specifically stipulated an instruction to the Presidium of the CEC of the USSR to prepare for the next session of the CEC of the USSR the question of practical measures to improve the material situation of individual republics and regions. All these measures, which were directly related to the national republics, were to be carried out in conjunction with other measures to streamline monetary circulation, develop and strengthen the existing network of credit institutions. [47]

The session also adopted a resolution on the establishment of the Central Agricultural Bank of the USSR, which was entrusted with promoting the restoration of agriculture by providing it with credit assistance. The bank had to take into account the specific features of agriculture in each republic, region and province and coordinate its activities with the policy of the governments of the Union republics in the field of agricultural credit. The banks of the Union republics in this resolution were aimed at coordinating their credit plans with the Central Agricultural Bank. [48]

The congress elected the first chamber of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR - the Union Council, which included 414 members and 220 candidates, and this composition was previously determined by a special commission created from representatives of the republics in proportion to the population of each republic. In the composition of the members of the Union Council, the share of the RSFSR was 68.8%, Ukraine - 17.4%, Belarus - 1.9% and Transcaucasia - 7%. In terms of national composition, the Union Council was as follows: Russians - 56.6%, Ukrainians - 9.8%, Belarusians - 1.7%, representatives of the peoples of the Caucasus - 7.3%, representatives of the Central Asian peoples - 1.5% and representatives of other nationalities - 23.1%. The Council of Nationalities, first formed at this congress, was created according to the norm of representation: 5 representatives from each union and autonomous republic and 1 from each autonomous region.[49]

The congress finally approved the Constitution of the USSR. Its text was prepared with the active participation of all the republics and regions, with discussion at numerous meetings and commissions, as well as at the congresses of the Soviets of the Union republics. Thus, the II Congress of Soviets of the TSFSR, held from January 4 to 7, 1924, ratified the Constitution of the USSR and put it into effect on the territory of the TSFSR. Prior to this, the Constitution was ratified by the CECs of Azerbaijan, Georgia and Armenia. [50] In this regard, at the F-th Congress of Soviets of the USSR, it was decided not to open debate on the report on the Constitution, and on January 31, 1924, the resolution approving the Constitution of the USSR was adopted unanimously, taking into account minor amendments to the text approved on July 6, 1923. [51] Soon the congresses of the Soviets of the Union republics were also held, which ratified the Constitution of the USSR. The long, multi-stage process of creating union authorities and the constitutional foundations of the Soviet multinational state was thus completed. [52]

The first Constitution of the USSR included the Declaration and the Treaty on the Formation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, which stated that "This Union is a voluntary association of equal peoples, that each republic is provided with the right to freely secede from the Union." A special chapter was devoted to the sovereign rights of the union republics and union citizenship, and it was written in it: “The sovereignty of the union republics is limited only within the limits specified in the present Constitution, and only in subjects related to the competence of the Union. Outside these limits, each union republic exercises its state power independently. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics protects the sovereign rights of the Union of Republics. In addition, there was a special chapter entitled "On the Union Republics", where it was said about their supreme and executive bodies and about the relationship of the republican authorities with the all-Union. The Constitution also contained chapters on the supreme and executive bodies of the Union, the Supreme Court of the Union, the United State Political Administration, the emblem, flag and capital of the USSR. The constitution provided for the publication of decrees and resolutions of the Central Executive Committee, its Presidium and the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR in the languages ​​of the union republics - Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian, Georgian, Armenian and Turko-Tatar.

According to this Constitution, all decrees, resolutions and orders of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR were obligatory for direct execution throughout the territory of the USSR, just as the Central Executive Committee of the USSR had the right to suspend and cancel decrees, resolutions and orders of the Presidium of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR, as well as congresses of councils and Central Executive Committees of the Union republics and others. authorities on the territory of the USSR. The Presidium of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR, the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR and the Supreme Court of the USSR had similar rights within their competence. In turn, in case of violation of the Constitution of the USSR, the legislation of the Union or the legislation of the union republic, the orders of the people's commissariats of the USSR could be suspended by the Central Executive Committees or the presidiums of the republics. The Central Executive Committees of the Union republics and their presidiums also received the right to protest the decrees and resolutions of the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR to the Presidium of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR, without suspending their execution.[53]

The Constitution never uses the term "federation", but from its content it could be understood that the USSR is a federal state of the Soviet type, and the inviolability of the foundations of Soviet power was already proclaimed in the preamble of the Constitution. The Constitution also never mentions the word "party" and says nothing about its role, and this immediately raised the question of the relationship between formal attitudes and the actual state of affairs. In fact, the role of the party after the adoption of the Constitution of the USSR not only did not decrease, but even increased. But in general, the Second Congress of Soviets of the USSR completed the process of creating the USSR as a single federal state. It is no coincidence that in 1924 the so-called "front page of recognition of the USSR" will follow. This year, diplomatic relations are established with Austria, Albania, Great Britain, Greece, Denmark, Italy, China, Mexico,

This, by no means, did not mean that further union building had completely stopped. Territorial changes took place, which always belonged to the category of the most complex interstate relations. In 1924, 15 counties and separate parts of the Vitebsk, Gomel and Smolensk provinces were transferred to the BSSR. In general, the territory of the republic more than doubled and reached 110.6 thousand square meters. km. with a population of 4.2 million people [54] In 1926, another 15 thousand square meters were transferred to the republic. km, where 650 thousand people lived. and, thus, the territory of Belarus has reached 125.9 thousand square meters. km, with a population of about 5 million people. [55] The long-term process of creating new union republics also continued.

In 1924, the Uzbek SSR was formed, in 1925 the Turkmen SSR, in 1929 the Tajik SSR, etc. But these were changes within the already established Soviet Union. With all the difficulties of the 20s-30s. after all, interethnic relations were largely regulated and it was not necessary to speak of the national question in the USSR as an antagonistic issue at that time. On December 4, 1935, at a meeting of advanced collective farmers and collective farmers of Tajikistan and Turkmenistan with the leaders of the party and government, I.V. Stalin, apparently, did not go against the truth when he remarked: “This meeting is clear evidence that the former mistrust between the peoples of the USSR has long been an end has already been put, that distrust has been replaced by complete mutual trust, that friendship between the peoples of the USSR is growing and strengthening. This, comrades, is the most valuable of all[56]

The next test of the strength of the Soviet Union was a big war, which required a huge effort of forces and means, and the rate of fascist Germany on the collapse of the USSR and the departure from the union of its nationalities was not justified. With all the difficulties of the war, individual examples of collaborationism, the national republics gave the Red Army millions of soldiers and officers, numerous home front workers, active assistants in organizing and conducting a mass evacuation of more than 10 million people, examples of which are hard to find in world history.



[1] Formation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, p. 417–418.

[2] Yakubovskaya S. I. Decree. op., p. 31.

[3] Ibid., p. 30–31.

[4] Central Committee of the RCP (b) - VKP (b) and the national question, p. 120–124.

[5] Ibid., p. 124–129.

[6] Formation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, p. 418–419.

[7] Pentkovskaya V. Decree. op., p. 107.

[8] Congresses of Soviets... T. III, p.29.

[9] Formation of the USSR, p. 394.

[10] Makarova G.P. People's Commissariat, p. 147.

[11] Pentkovskaya V. Decree. op., p. 117.

[12] Nezhinsky L. N. Decree. op., p. 90.

[13] Diplomatic relations of the USSR // Diplomatic Dictionary. T. I. A-I. M., 1984, p. 313.

[14] Harmandaryan S.V. Rallying peoples, p. 52–53.

[15] Formation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, p. 425.

[16] Formation of the USSR, p.396.

[17] Ibid., p. 396–398.

[18] Pentkovskaya V. Decree. op., p. 118.

[19] Formation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, p. 428.

[20] Gimpelson E.G. Soviet managers. 20s. (Leading personnel of the state apparatus of the USSR). M., 2001, p. 94.

[21] Ibid., p.93.

[22] Vasyaev V. I., Drobizhev V. Z., Zaks L. V., Pivovar E. I., Ustinov V. A., Ushakova T. A. Census data of employees in 1922 on the composition of the personnel of the People's Commissariats of the RSFSR, M., 1972, p. 59–61.

[23] Klimenko A.V., Radaev A.V. Preface // Rykov A.I. Selected works. M., 1990, p.28.

[24] Rykov A.I. Immediate prospects for the national economy of the USSR (Report at the Business Club on December 11, 1923) // Rykov A.I. Selected Works, p. 264–265.

[25] Nenarokov A.P. Toward the unity of equals, p. 180.

[26] Pentkovskaya V. Decree. op., p. 118–119.

[27] Formation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, p. 437.

[28] Pentkovskaya V. Decree. op., p. 121.

[29] Formation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, p. 444–445.

[30] Ibid., p. 447–453.

[31] Congresses of Soviets... Vol. III, p.30.

[32] Pentkovskaya V. Decree. op., p. 122–123.

[33] NEP and cost accounting. M., 1991, p. 92–97.

[34] Rosenberg U. Formation of a new Russian state / / Domestic history. 1994, no. 1, p. 12–13.

[35] Formation of the USSR, p. 395.

[36] Congresses of Soviets... Vol. III, p.43.

[37] Pentkovskaya V. Decree. op., p. 123–124.

[38] Harmandaryan SV. Unity of peoples, p. 84–85, 88–89.

[39] Lyutov L. N. The control system of the state industry in the years of the NEP // NEP: the final stage. Correlation between economics and politics. M., 1998, p. 100–105.

[40] Twelfth Congress of the RCP (b), p. 580–581.

[41] Suvorova L. N. The state and the market in Russia in 1923-1928 // NEP: the final stage, p. 78–79.

[42] Nenarokov A.P. On the unity of equals, p. 200–201.

[43] Krasovitskaya T.Yu. Organization of the scientific base of the national-cultural policy in the RSFSR (1917–1927) // Great October and the experience of cultural construction in the USSR. M., 1987, p.49.

[44] Nenarokov A.P. Toward the unity of equals, p. 219–221.

[45] Ermakov V. T. Formation of creative organizations of the artistic intelligentsia in the USSR (October 1917-late 30s) // Great October and the experience of cultural construction in the USSR, p. 100–101.

[46] Congresses of Soviets... Vol. III. with. 31.

[47] Ibid., p. 56–60.

[48] ​​Ibid., p. 54–55.

[49] Ibid., p. 32–33.

[50] Harmandaryan S. V. Unity of peoples, p. 82.

[51] Congresses of Soviets... Vol. III, pp. 32, 40.

[52] Yakubovskaya S. I. Decree. op., p. 38.

[53] Congresses of Soviets... Vol. III, p. 40–54.

[54] Kostyuk M.P. Decree. op., p. 331.

[55] Multinational Soviet State, p. 156.

[56] Stalin I. Works. T.14. March 1934–1940 M., 1997, p.101.