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V. Afanasyev
Two Phases of the New Society

Socialism and communism, the lower and higher phases of the new, communist society, rest on a highly developed material and technical basis, and their immutable economic foundation is social ownership of the means of production and the absence of exploitation of man by man.

Since private ownership, exploiting classes and oppression of man by man are non-existent under socialism or communism, the relations of production of the two systems are those of fraternal co-operation and mutual assistance.

The law of planned, proportionate economic development operates under both socialism and communism. The purpose of social production (the fullest possible satisfaction of the people’s material and spiritual requirements) and the means of achieving this purpose (uninterrupted development and improvement of production through the application of the latest technical advances) are likewise similar under socialism and communism.

Both socialism and communism are characterized by friendship and co-operation among nations, while the preservation and consolidation of peace are the bedrock of the relations between all countries, big and small; in both socialist and communist society all citizens enjoy the right to work according to their ability; under both these systems there is harmony between the individual and society, and communist ideology holds complete sway.

In view of the community of basic features of socialism and communism, the classics of Marxism-Leninism regarded them as two phases (stages of development) of one and the same communist society. “Insofar as the means of production become common property,” Lenin wrote, “the word ‘communism’ is also applicable here, provided we do not forget that this is not complete communism.” [172•*

Socialism is incomplete, undeveloped communism because it grows directly from capitalism, is built on material inherited from the capitalist system and, naturally, retains traces, “birth marks" of this old society. Such, for example, are the survivals of the old division of labour, the lack of complete economic equality, survivals of the past in the minds and behaviour of people, and so forth.

Under communism, the higher phase of the new system, mechanisation and automation reach unprecedented proportions in production, and the level of labour productivity and output is so high that society can go over from the socialist principle of distribution—“From each according to his ability, to each according to his work"—to the qualitatively new, communist principle—“From each according to his ability, to each according to his needs”. Labour itself changes considerably. All citizens will have an inner urge to work for the benefit of society voluntarily and according to their inclinations.

Marked qualitative changes will take place not only in economy but also in social relations, in people’s thinking and the way of life. The essential distinctions between town and country and then between mental and physical labour will disappear and all citizens will be workers of a communist society. The state will wither away and socialist statehood will develop into communist social self–government.

“Communism," states the Programme of the C.P.S.U., “is a classless social system with one form of public ownership of the means of production and full social equality of all members of society; under it, the all-round development of people will be accompanied by the growth of the productive forces through continuous progress in science and technology; all the springs of co-operative wealth will flow more abundantly, and the great principle ’From each according to his ability, to each according to his needs’ will be implemented. Communism is a highly organised society of free, socially conscious working people in which public self-government will be established, a society in which labour for the good of society will become the prime vital requirement of everyone, a necessity recognised by one and 174all, and the ability of each person will be employed to the greatest benefit of the people."

To carry out these fundamental qualitative transformations society needs time and the corresponding material, social and spiritual prerequisites: a large material and technical basis, improved social relations that will be free of exploitation of man by man, a rich spiritual culture, and a high level of political consciousness among the people. Insofar as all these prerequisites are created only under socialism it is impossible to by-pass the socialist stage of development, to accomplish a leap directly from capitalism to the higher stage of communism. “From capitalism,” Lenin wrote, “mankind can pass directly only to socialism, i.e., to the social ownership of the means of production and the distribution of products according to the amount of work performed by each individual.” [174•*

Being a special stage of social development, socialism is, therefore, inevitable. In the same way as the stem and not the ear grows directly from a grain seed, only socialism springs directly from capitalism.

* * *
Economy of Socialism

Socialist public ownership, which concurs with the social nature of production, is the foundation of socialist economy. In the U.S.S.R. and most of the other socialist countries there are two forms of social property: public and co–operative. The first takes shape as a result of socialist nationalisation and belongs to the entire people, and the second appears as a result of the setting up of production co–operatives and belongs to the group of people who have founded the given co-operative. Public ownership occupies the dominant position in socialist economy because, firstly, it embraces the key industries (heavy engineering, power engineering, transport, and so on) and, secondly, there is greater socialisation of the means of production than in cooperative ownership.

In line with these two forms of social property there are two types of socialist economy: state-owned enterprises (factories, state farms, and so on) and co-operatives ( collective farms and artisan and handicrafts artels). Both these types as well as the economies within each type are 175 economically interlocked through socialist commodity-monetary relations, which are typical of the socialist system.

In socialist society social ownership removes the division of people into rulers and ruled, excludes exploitation of man by man and institutes production relations highlighting friendly co-operation and mutual assistance among the people.

The humanist objective of socialist production, that of satisfying the steadily growing material and cultural requirements of the people as fully as possible, issues from the supremacy of socialist ownership, from the fact that the means of production and, therefore, its products and all material and cultural values belong to the people. This is the very antithesis of the purpose of capitalist production, namely that of extracting the maximum profit. The capitalist does not care what he produces—atomic bombs or foodstuffs—so long as he receives a large profit. On the other hand, the purpose of socialist production is not to enrich a handful of privileged individuals but to satisfy the requirements of all people.

True, for the time being socialist production is unable to ensure an abundance of the means of life and fully satisfy the requirements of all citizens. Socialist ownership and the level of production that has been reached have made it possible to apply the socialist principle of distribution: “From each according to his ability, to each according to his work.” The unalterable law of socialism is that he who does not work (if, naturally, he is capable of work), neither shall he eat.

All members of society have the equal duty to work and enjoy an equal right to receive from society in accordance with the quantity and quality of their work. The socialist principle of distribution eliminates the division, inherent in exploiting society, of people into a minority that do not work and yet enjoy all the blessings of life, and the 176overwhelming majority that are doomed to exhausting labour which frequently does not ensure them with a tolerable existence.

Distribution according to work is natural and it is vital to socialism, for it provides people with a material incentive which is one of the most powerful stimuli of socialist production. Under socialism he who works more and better receives more. This system of remuneration for labour gives people the material incentive to enhance their skills, actively participate in production and increase output and improve its quality.

Although under socialism all citizens have the equal duty to work and the equal right to be paid in accordance with their work, socialist society as yet does not ensure them with full economic equality.

Save for a deduction that goes to the social fund, every individual producer receives from society as much as he gives it. There is no class inequality, but there still is inequality in the share of products received by each individual member of society. Thus, under socialism, the principle of equal pay for equal work signifies the application of one and the same yardstick to different people. Inasmuch as people have different qualifications, varying talents and numerically different families, payment according to work means that actually they receive unequal incomes. This is unavoidable during the first phase of the new society, for it is a phase when society has yet to achieve an abundance of consumer goods and a uniformly high level of political consciousness. The earnings of all people cannot be levelled out in socialist society because that would violate the principle of socialist distribution and lessen the material incentive to work.

It would be wrong to think that the economic organisation of socialist society is ideal, that its formation and development is smooth and painless. There are many difficulties and contradictions, chiefly of an objective nature. It must not be forgotten that when the U.S.S.R. (and most of the other socialist countries) started building socialism their level of production was low, and that the people spent much of their energy and time on an armed struggle against external enemies and on the restoration of their warravaged economy. Another factor was the shortage of material and financial resources and skilled personnel and the lack of experience in socialist construction.

Therefore, when we compare socialist and capitalist economy the factors we must take into consideration are: what socialism began from, under what conditions it was built, how long it has been in existence, and what its prospects are. If all these factors are taken into account, the comparison will by no means favour capitalism.

Class Pattern of Socialist Society

The class pattern of society undergoes profound changes with the building of socialism. The exploiting classes are removed in both town and country. The contrast between town and country is abolished inasmuch as the working people of town and country are liberated from exploitation, work for themselves and society, and enjoy equal rights to receive for their work in accordance with its quantity and quality. The distinction between mental and physical work is surmounted because people engaged in mental work serve the common cause of socialism side by side with the workers and peasants.

The Soviet working class is no longer the exploited and oppressed proletariat of capitalist days. Along with the entire people it owns the means of production and is a genuine master of its country. Remaining the most organised and politically conscious class and championing comradely co-operation and mutual assistance, the working class plays the leading role in socialist society.

Socialism destroys class domination and subordination. In socialist society no class or group of people enjoy special privileges. The relation of all members of society to the means of production is identical and this rules out the possibility of anybody exploiting other people and appropriating the fruits of their work. Since socialist society is free of exploiters and the exploited, having only working classes and social groups, class struggles are non-existent in it.

An unbreakable social, political and ideological unity consisting of a community of basic economic and political objectives of the working class, the peasants and the intelligentsia, of their unanimous desire to rise to a still higher stage of social development and build communism, takes shape in socialist society. This identity of objectives induces all members of socialist society to act together, to pool their efforts in order to surmount difficulties and carry out epoch-making tasks.


Notes

[172•*] Lenin, Collected Works, Vol. 25, p. 471.

[174•*] Lenin, Collected Works, Vol. 24, pp. 84–85.