Atnti Duhring Notes

Anti Duhring

NOTES

^<"en1">[1] Herr Eugen Dühring's Revolution in Science, to give its original title in full, is generally known as Anti-Dühring. Lenin evaluated this work very highly, saying that it analyzed "highly important problems in the domain of philosophy, natural science and the social sciences" and that it "is a wonderfully rich and instructive book" (Collected Works, Foreign Languages Publishing House, Moscow, 1960, Vol. II, p. 25 and note). [Transcriber's Note: See Lenin's "Frederick Engels". -- DJR]

Engels' work was a direct product of the ideological and political struggle within the German Social-Democratic Party and working-class movement.

Marx and Engels first noticed Dühring when the latter published his review of Marx's Capital, Vol. I in Ergänzungsblätter zur Kenntniss der Gegenwart (Supplementary Notes for Knowing the Present ), No. 3, Vol. 3, December 1867. Their letters to each other in January-March 1868 reflected their critical attitude towards Dühring.

Dühring was quite influential among the Social-Democrats in the 1870s, His most active supporters were Eduard Bernstein, Johann Most and Friedrich Wilhelm Fritzsche. For a short time even August Bebel was influenced by Dühring. In March 1874 he anonymously published two articles about Dühring entitled "A New Communist" in the Volksstaat (see Note 2), against which Marx and Engels lodged a strong protest to Wilhelm Liebknecht.

With the appearance of the second edition of Dühring's Critical History of Political Economy and Socialism and his Course of Philosophy in 1875, Dühring and his supporters became increasingly bold. Dühring came out with sharp attacks on Marxism in these two works, so that Liebknecht sounded the alarm in his letter to Engels of April 1875.

In October 1875 and May 1876, Liebknecht sent Engels articles by Abraham Enss and Johann Most, which lauded Dühring and were rejected by the Volksstaat.

Engels had already publicly struck the first blow against Dühring in the course of his article "Prussian Booze in the German Reichstag", which appeared in the Volksstaat in February and March 1876 (Marx and Engels, Werke, Berlin, 1962, Vol. XIX, p. 45). At the end of May 1876 Engels decided to interrupt his work on the Dialectics of Nature in order to refute the "regenerator of socialism" and his new "socialist doctrine" and to defend Marxism as the only correct world outlook for the party of the proletariat. In his letter to Marx of May 24, 1875, Engels indicated that the time had arrived to settle accounts with Dühring, and he was firmly supported by Marx in the latter's reply of May 25. Engels immediately set to work and in his letter to Marx of May 28 he described the general plan and character of his projected work (see Marx and Engels, Selected Correspondence, FLPH, Moscow, no date, pp. 371-73).

Engels spent almost two years -- from September 1876 to the beginning of July 1878 -- on Anti-Dühring.

Part I was basically written between September 1876 and January 1877 and appeared as a series of articles entitled "Herr Eugen Dühring's Revolution in Philosophy" in Vorwärts (Forward, see Note 2) in January May 1877. This part also included the first two chapters, which later appeared as an independent general introduction to all three parts when Anti-Dühring was first published in book form.

Part II was basically completed between June and August 1877. Its last chapter, "From the Critical History ", was written by Marx. Part II, entitled "Herr Eugen Dühring's Revolution in Political Economy", was published in Vorwärts in July-December 1877.

Part III was written between August 1877 and April 1878. Entitled "Herr Eugen Dühring's Revolution in Socialism", it was published in Vorwärts in May-July 1878.

The publication of Engels' articles met with strong resistance from Dühring's followers, who tried by every means to obstruct their appearance in the Party's central organ and who were responsible for the long intervals between articles.

Part I appeared as a brochure in July 1877 and Parts II and III as another brochure a year later. The first complete edition of Anti-Dühring in book form was published in July 1878, the second in 1886, and the third in 1894.

Engels' title is a parody of Dühring's Carey's Revolution in Economic Theory and Social Science, which is a eulogy of the American vulgar economist Henry Carey, from whom Dühring largely derived his own economic theory.

With the enactment of the Anti-Socialist Law in October 1878 (see Note 4) Anti-Dühring was banned in Germany, together with all Engels' other writings. [pub. note]

^<"en2">[2] Der Volksstaat (The People's State ) was the central organ of the German Social-Democratic Workers' Party (Eisenachers), published in Leipzig from October 2, 1869 to September 29, 1876. It was ceaselessly persecuted by the Government and the police for its courageous revolutionary position. While its general direction was in the hands of Wilhelm Liebknecht, August Bebel, who had charge of the Volksstaat publishing house, exerted a big influence on its character.

Marx and Engels were in close contact with the editors and regularly contributed articles. They attached immense importance to the newspaper and by criticizing it for its errors helped to keep it on the right track.

On October 1, 1876, by the decision of the Gotha Congress of the same year, the Volksstaat and the Neuer Sozialdemokrat (The New Social-Democrat ) were fused into Vorwärts. [p. 3]

^<"en3">[3] The Sixth World Industrial Fair was held in Philadelphia in 1876 to celebrate the centenary of the founding of the USA. Germany was one of the 40 exhibitors. The chairman of the German panel of judges appointed by the German Government was compelled to admit that German industry was far behind that of other countries and that its guiding principle was "cheap but bad". [p. 6]

^<"en4">[4] The Anti-Socialist Law was enacted by the Bismarck Govemment with the support of the majority in the Reichstag in October 1878. It banned the German Social-Democratic Party, all Party organizations, mass workers' organizations and the socialist and workers' press were outlawed, socialist literature was confiscated and Social-Democrats were persecuted. However, with the active help of Marx and Engels, the Social-Democratic Party overcame the opportunist and "ultra-Left" elements in its ranks and correctly combined illegal with legal activities and enhanced its influence. Under the pressure of the working-class movement, the law was repealed on October 1, 1890. [p. 7]

^<"en5">[5] A reactionary alliance of European monarchies formed in 1815 by tsarist Russia, Austria and Prussia to suppress the revolution and preserve feudal monarchy in Europe. [p. 7]

^<"en6">[6] The Poverty of Philosophy was published in 1847, The Communist Manifesto in 1848, and Capital, Vol. I, in 1867. [p. 8]

^<"en7">[7] Eugen Dühring was a lecturer at the University of Berlin from 1865 and a teacher at a private lyceum for girls from 1873. In 1872 he began to make sharp attacks on university professors and to criticize university practices. In 1876 he lost his job at the lyceum as a result of pressure from reactionary professors. He repeated his accusations in sharper language in 1877, whereupon the Department of Philosophy deprived him of the right to teach at the University. His dismissal sparked a vocifcrous protest campaign by his supporters and was condemned by broad democratic circles.

E. Schweninger, Bismarck's personal physician from 1881, was appointed professor at Berlin University in 1884. [p. 9]

^<"en8">[8] L. H. Morgan's fundamental work Ancient Society was published in London in 1877. [p. 10]

^<"en9">[9] Engels left the Manchester merchant house of Ermen and Engels on July 1, 1869 and moved to London on September 20, 1870. [p. 11]

^<"en10">[10] Engels examines the positions of Hegel and Helmholtz in the chapter, "Basic Forms of Motion" in his Dialectics of Nafure. (See English ed., International Publishers, New York, 1940, p. 37 ff.) [p. 13]

^<"en11">[11] Hegel, Philosophy of Nature, translated by A. V. Miller, Oxford, 1970, pp. 65-66 and 76-77. [p. 13]

^<"en12">[12] For Engels' further comments on the historical significance of Kant's nebular hypothesis, see pp. 28-29 and 70-71 above; for his discussion of Kant's discovery of tidal friction, see Engels, Dialectics of Nature, New York, 1940, pp. 271-78. [p. 13]

^<"en13">[13] Engels is referring to the manuscript of Dialectics of Nature and Marx's mathematical manuscripts. The latter, consisting of 1,000 sheets, were written between the end of the 1850s and the early 1880s. [p. 14]

^<"en14">[14] Engels is referring to the duck-bill platypus and to the archaeopteryx. [p. 15]

^<"en15">[15] In speaking of the "progressive" nature of Virchow's theory, Engels is alluding to his membership of the German bourgeois Progressive Party, of which he was a founder and active member. Founded in 1861 it demanded in its programme Germany's unification under Prussian leadership and the realization of the principle of local self-administration. [p. 15]

^<"en16">[16] Münzer (around 1490-1525) was a revolutionary, leader and ideologist of the radical peasant-plebeian wing during the Reformation and the Peasants' War. He propagated utopian, egalitarian communism.

As for the Levellers, Engels here obviously has in mind the True Levellers and the egalitarian Diggers, who constituted the extreme left wing of the Levellers.

Babeuf (1760-97) was a utopian communist and the theorist and leader of the "Conspiracy of Equals". [p. 21]

^<"en17">[17] For an English translation of Le Neveu de Rameau, see Diderot, Rameau's Nephew and D'Alembert's Dream, translated by L. W. Tancock, Penguin Books, 1966; for Rousseau, see Note 56 below. [p. 24]

^<"en18">[18] The Alexandrian period of science dates from the 3rd century B.C. Its name derives from the Egyptian port of Alexandria, which was a major centre of international trade. The first two centuries of the Alexandrian age witnessed the rapid advance of mathematics and mechanics (Euclid, Archimedes), astronomy, anatomy, physiology, geography and other sciences. [p. 25]

^<"en19">[19] Dühring, A Course of Philosophy, Leipzig, 1875; A Course of Political and Social Economy, 2nd ed., Leipzig, 1876; A Critical History of Political Economy and Socialism, 2nd ed., Berlin, 1875. [p. 35]

^<"en20">[20] Phalansteries -- the buildings in which, according to Fourier, the members of producer-consumer associations would live and work in the ideal socialist society. [p. 39]

^<"en21">[21] In 1885, when he prepared the second edition of Anti-Dühring, Engels proposed giving a note here, the outline of which ("On the prototypes of mathematical 'infinity' in the real world") he subsequently included in the material for Dialectics of Nature. (See English ed., New York, 1940, pp. 313-19.) [p. 44]

^<"en22">[22] This is an allusion to the servility of the Prussians, who accepted the constitution granted by the King on December 5, 1848, with the simultaneous disbandment of the Prussian Constituent Assembly. This constitution was drawn up with the active participation of Baron Manteuffel, the reactionary Minister of the Interior. [p. 49]

^<"en23">[23] See W. Wallace, The Logic of Hegel (translated from Hegel's Encyclopaedia of the Philosophical Sciences ), 2nd ed., Oxford, pp. 322-23, and Hegel, The Science of Logic, translated by A. V. Miller, Allen and Unwin, London, 1969, pp. 679-81 and pp. 806-11. [p. 49]

^<"en24">[24] In Part I of Anti-Dühring all such referenccs are to Dühring's Course of Philosophy. [p. 50]

^<"en25">[25] Engels mentions a number of major battles of the 19th century: Austerlitz, December 2, 1805, in which Napoleon defeated a combined Russo-Austrian Army; Jena, October 14, 1806, in which Napoleon crushed the Prussian army; Königgrätz (now Hradec Královc), July 3, 1866, in Bohemia, in which Prussian forces decisively defeated the army of Austria and Saxony, and which is also known as the Battle of Sadowa; Sedan, September 1-2, 1870, in which Prussian forces decisively defeated the French army under MacMahon, compelling it to surrender. [p. 52]

^<"en26">[26] W. Wallace, The Logic of Hegel, pp. 174-75. [p. 58]

^<"en27">[27] Kant, Critigue of Pure Reason, translated by Norman Kemp Smith, MacMillan, London, 1929, pp. 396-98. [p. 60]

^<"en28">[28] See Hegel, The Science of Logic, translated by A. V. Miller, p. 389. For the neo-Schellingian category of "unpreconceivable being", see Engels' Schelling and Revelation (Marx and Engels, Werke, Ergänzungsband, Part Two, especially p. 201). [p. 64]

^<"en29">[29] Wherever the word Kraft is used in this sense in the German original, it is translated as "energy" and not as "force" as in earlier English versions. In fact, Engels is dealing with "energy" and not with "force" in the specialized sense in which it is now used in mechanics, as can be clearly seen from pp. 74-75 above. Engels himself began to use the term energy from around 1880 onwards. In an essay written in 1880-81 he says that "in all circumstances" "'energy' is to be preferred to the expression 'force'" (Dialectics of Nature, New York, 1940, p. 49), and he makes use of the term energy in his Preface to the second cdition of Anti-Dühring, written in 1885 (see pp. <#p14">14-15 above. [p. 66]

^<"en30">[30] The planet is Neptune, which was discovered in 1846 by Johann Galle at the Berlin Obscrvatory. [p. 71]

^<"en31">[31] According to later and more precise investigations, the latent heat of the formation of steam at 100ƒC is equal to 538.9 cal./g. [p. 78]

^<"en32">[32] When Engels prepared the second edition of Anti-Dühring, he intended to add a note, the draft of which ("On the 'mechanical' concept of nature") was subsequently included in Dialectics of Nature. (See English ed., New York, 1940, pp. 319-24.) [p. 83]

^<"en33">[33] Charles Darwin, The Origin of Species, 6th ed., London, 1872, p. 428; the italics are Engels'. [p. 90]

^<"en34">[34] The terms protista (from the Greek protistos, meaning first) and monera (from the Greek moneres, meaning single) were coined by Haeckel in 1866 in his book General Morphology of Organisms but never gained

currency in science. Today the organisms he regarded as protista are classified either as plants or as animals. The existence of monera has likewise not been confirmed. However, the general idea of the evolution of cellular organisms from pre-cellular formations and the bifurcation of living elemental units into plants and animals have received scientific recognition. [p. 91]

^<"en35">[35] In ironically calling Richard Wagner the "composer of the future" Engels is alluding to Wagner's book Das Kunstwerk der Zukunft (The Work of Art of the Future ), Leipzig, 1850. [p. 94]

^<"en36">[36] A family of unicellular or, less commonly, colonial fresh-water algae. [p. 96]

^<"en37">[37] The term plant-animal or zoophyte has dropped out of use. [p. 98]

^<"en38">[38] This classification was given in T. H. Huxley's Lectures on the Elements of Comparative Anatomy, London, 1864, Lecture V. [p. 98]

^<"en39">[39] Amphioxus -- a headless marine animal with some of the characteristics of a fish, but much more primitive. [p. 98]

^<"en40">[40] Hegel, Philosophy of Nature, translated by A. V. Miller, Oxford, 1970, p. 353. [p. 99]

^<"en41">[41] Wherever Engels uses the word Eiweiss or Eiweisskörper, the translation is given in accordance with modern usage as "protein" or "protein substances" and not as "albumen" or "albuminous bodies", as the term "albumen" is now applied to one group of proteins only. [p. 102]

^<"en42">[42] The Thirty Years' War (1618-48) was a war involving several European countries. Germany bccame the main arena and the object of military pillage and predatory claims by the belligerents. [p. 125]

^<"en43">[43] The allusion is to Max Stirner's Der Einzige und sein Eigentum (The Ego and His Own ), which Marx and Engels devastatingly criticized in The German Ideology. [p. 125]

^<"en44">[44] The reference is to events which took place in the period of tsarist Russia's conquest of Central Asia. In July-August 1873, during the Khiva campaign General Kaufmann sent a force under General Golovatchef on a punitive expedition against the Turkmenian Yomud tribe in which extreme cruelty was shown. (See Eugene Schuyler, Turkistan, Notes of a Journey in Russian Turkistan, Khokand, Bukbara, and Kuldja, London, 1876, in 2 volumes, Vol. II, pp. 356-62.) [p. 127]

^<"en45">[45] Hegel, Philosopby of Right, translated by T. M. Knox, Oxford, 1942, § 100, note, p. 71. [p. 128]

^<"en46">[46] Lassalle was arrested in February 1848 on a charge of inciting to an attempt to steal a cash-box containing documents for use in the divorce case of Countess Sophie Hatzfeldt, in which he acted as legal adviser from 1846 to 1854. Lassalle's trial took place on August 5-11, 1848; he was acquitted by the jury. [p. 137]

^<"en47">[47] The Prussian Landrecht, the general law of the Prussian states adopted in 1794, perpetuated feudal Prussian backwardness in the legal sphere and in the main remained in force until the adoption of the code of civil law in 1900. See also Engels' comment on the Landrecht in Ludwig Feuerbach and the End of Classical German Philosophy (Marx and Engels, Selected Works, FLPH, Moscow, 1958, Vol. II, p. 396). [p. 137]

^<"en48">[48] Code pénal -- the French Penal Code adopted in 1810 and put into operation in France and in the regions of western and southwestern Germany conquered by Napoleon; together with the Civil Code it remained in force in the Province of the Rhine even after Prussia's annexation of the latter in 1815. The Prussian Government sought to introduce Prussian law into this province by a wide variety of measures, which were firmly opposed and finally abrogated after the Revolution of 1848 by a series of decrees. [p. 137]

^<"en49">[49] The Code Napoléon in its broad sense includes the Civil Code, the Code of Civil Procedure, the Commercial Code, the Criminal Code, and the Code of Criminal Procedure, which were adopted in 1804-10. In its narrow sense the Code Napoléon is the Civil Code adopted in 1804, which Engels called "the classical code of law of bourgeois society". (Ludwig Feuerbach and the End of Classical German Philosophy, Marx and Engels, Selected Works, FLPH, Moscow, 1958, Vol. II, p. 396). [p. 138]

^<"en50">[50] Spinoza, Ethics (Part I, Appendix) in Spinoza Selections, edited by J. Wild, Scribner's, 1958, pp. 138-39. Spinoza was attacking the clerical view that everything is determined by "divine Providence" as the final cause, their only argument for this thesis being that we are ignorant of other causes. [p. 139]

^<"en51">[51] Corpus juris civilis -- the code of civil law regulating property relations in Roman slave-owning society, drawn up under the Emperor Justinian in the 6th century A.D. Engels characterized it as the "first world law of a commodity-producing society, with its unsurpassably fine elaboration of all the essential legal relations of simple commodity owners (of buyers and sellers, debtors and creditors, contracts, obligations, etc.)". (Ludwig Feuerbach and the End of Classical German Pbilosophy, Marx

and Engels, Selected Works, FLPH, Moscow, 1958, Vol. II, p. 396.) See also Engels' Introduction to Socialism: Utopian and Scientific, p. 442 above. [Transcriber's Note: Just a reminder: since the "Introduction" is included with the complete text of Socialism: Utopian and Scientific, it has been omitted here. -- DJR] [p. 139]

^<"en52">[52] The law making the civil registration of births, marriages and deaths compulsory in Prussia was adopted on Bismarck's initiative in 1874. An analogous law was promulgated for the whole German Empire in 1875. This law was directed primarily against the Catholic Church and was a vital part of Bismarck's so-called "cultural struggle". [p. 141]

^<"en53">[53] Personal Equation -- a systematic source of error in determining the moment of a celestial body's passage across a set plane, depending, on the psychological and physiological features of the observer and on the method used to register the passage. [p. 143]

^<"en54">[54] Hegel, Encyclopaedia of Philosophical Sciences, Paragraph 147, Addendum, Wallace's translation in The Logic of Hegel, p. 269, revised; Engels' italics. [p. 144]

^<"en55">[55] Mémoires pour servir à l'histoire de France, sous Napoléon, écrits à Sainte-Hélène, par les généraux qui ont partagé sa captivité (Memoirs Dealing with the History of France Under Napoleon, written by the generals sharing his captivity in Saint Helena), Vol. I, compiled by Comte de Montholon, Paris, 1823, p. 262, Note 3: Cavalry. [p. 163]

^<"en56">[56] See Rousseau's Discourse on the Origin of Inequality Among Men in The Social Contract and Discourses, translated by G. D. H. Cole, J. M. Dent, Everyman Library, pp. 214-15; below Engels also quotes pp. 224 and 235-36. The italics are all his. Cole's translation has been revised in these passages. [p. 178]

^<"en57">[57] The formulation determinatio est negatio was used by Spinoza in a letter of June 2, 1674 (see The Correspondence of Spinoza, edited by A. Wolf, Allen and Unwin, London, 1928, p. 270, and Spinoza Selections, edited by J. Wild, p. 454), where it is used in the sense of "limitation or determination is a negation". The formulation omnis determinatio est negatio, in the sense of "every determinateness is a negation", is used by Hegel more than once, see for example, W. Wallace, The Logic of Hegel, pp. 171-72, and Hegel, The Science of Logic, translated by A. V. Miller, p. 113, where he says that "this proposition is infinitely important". [p. 180]

^<"en58">[58] In Part II of Anti-Dühring, all page numbers except those in Chapter X, refer to the second edition of Dühring's A Course of Political and Social Economy. [p. 193]

^<"en59">[59] I.e., in the second edition of Dühring's A Course of Political and Social Economy (see Note 19).

[Note 19: Dühring, A Course of Philosophy, Leipzig, 1875; A Course of Political and Social Economy, 2nd ed., Leipzig, 1876; A Critical History of Political Economy and Socialism, 2nd ed., Berlin, 1875.] [p. 199]

^<"en60">[60] The reference is to A. Thierry, (who as a young man served as a secretary to Saint-Simon,) F. Guizot, F. Mignet and A. Thiers. [p. 203]

^<"en61">[61] The 5,000 million francs France paid to Germany as an indemnity in 1871-73 under the terms of the peace treaty, after her defeat in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71. [p. 212]

^<"en62">[62] The Prussian Landwehr system under which units of the armed forces were formed of older able-bodied reservists who were assigned to the Landwehr after they had served in the regular army. The Landwehr was first formed in Prussia in 1813-14 as a people's militia to combat Napoleon. During the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71, it was used in battle alongside regular troops. [p. 216]

^<"en63">[63] I.e., in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866. [p. 216]

^<"en64">[64] In the Battle of St.-Privat, August 18, 1870, German troops defeated the French army of the Rhine at the cost of enormous losses, known as the Battle of Gravelotte. [p. 217]

^<"en65">[65] The end of the note given in parenthesis was added by Engels in the third edition of Anti-Dühring, published in 1894. [p. 222]

^<"en66">[66] The works of G. Maurer (in 12 volumes) deal with the economic and social role of the Mark, the ancient German village community, and with the organization of the agrarian and urban communities of medieval Germany. [p. 225]

^<"en67">[67] David Ricardo, Works and Correspondence, Vol. I, On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation, Cambridge University Press, 1951, p. 11. [p. 250]

^<"en68">[68] Marx makes a detailed criticism of the Lassallean slogan of "full" or "undiminished proceeds of labour" in Section I, Critique of the Gotha Programme, Foreign Languages Press, Peking, 1972, pp. 10-14. [p. 258]

^<"en69">[69] Marx planned to have the second volume include the second and third books of Capital, but subsequently the third book appeared separately as Volume III. [p. 273]

^<"en70">[70] Faithful Eckart -- a character in German medieval folklore, a devoted and reliable guard, who kept watch at the foot of a mountain and warned everyone who approached it of the danger of Venus' charms. [p. 281]

^<"en71">[71] An allusion to Dühring's Kritische Grundlegung der Volkswirthschaftslehre (Critical Foundations of Economics ), Berlin, 1866. [p. 284]

^<"en72">[72] Adam Smith, An Enquiry Into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, edited by E. Cannan, Modern Library edition, Random House, New York, 1937, pp. 52-54; all italics are Engels'. [p. 288]

^<"en43">[43] The allusion is to Max Stirner's Der Einzige und sein Eigentum (The Ego and His Own ), which Marx and Engels devastatingly criticized in The German Ideology. [p. 291]

^<"en73">[73] Aristotle, Politics, translated by Benjamin Jowett, revised edition, Oxford, 1966, 1257a, or the Penguin Books edition, translated by J. A. Sinclair, 1962, p. 41. Marx quotes this passage in A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy (see English ed., Lawrence and Wishart, London, 1971, p. 27, footnote) and in Capital (see English ed., FLPH, Moscow, 1961, Vol. I, p. 85, footnote). [p. 292]

^<"en74">[74] Plato's Republic, Book II, translated by Benjamin Jowett, World Publishing Company edition, Cleveland, 1946, pp. 67-73, or the Penguin Books edition, translated by H. P. Lee, 1955, pp. 102-09. [p. 292]

^<"en75">[75] Aristotle, Politics, Book I, Chapters 8-9, Oxford, 1966, 1256a-1258a, or the Penguin Books edition, 1962, pp. 38-45; see also Marx, A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy, London, 1971, p. 137, footnote, and Capital, Moscow, 1961, Vol. I, p. 152, first footnote. [p. 293]

^<"en76">[76] Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, Book V, Chapter 5, translated by W. D. Ross, Oxford, 1925, 1133a and b, or the Penguin Books edition translated by J. A. K. Thomson, 1953, pp. 151-54; see also Marx, A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy, London, 1971, p. 68, footnote, and Capital, Moscow, 1961, Vol. I, pp. 59-60. [p. 293]

^<"en77">[77] F. List, The National System of Political Economy, translated by S. S. Lloyd, Longmans, Green and Co., London, 1904, pp. 263 and 265.
For Antonio Serra's Breve Trattato, see Scrittori classici italiani di economia politica, edited by P. Cusiodi, Vol. I, Milan, 1803. [p. 294]

^<"en78">[78] Marx erred in asserting that Mun's A Discourse of Trade, from England into the East Indies appeared in 1609; it was apparently written around 1615 and was published in 1621. But this does not affect the validity of his evaluation of Mun's work as vastly superior to and far more important and influential than Serra's.
A Discourse of Trade is available in a reprint by the Facsimile Text Society, New York, in 1930. Mum's England's Treasure by Foreign Trade, to which Marx refers a few lines later, is available in a reprint by the Economic History Society, London, in 1928. [p. 294]

^<"en79">[79] The Economic Writings of Sir William Petty, edited by C. H. Hull of Cambridge, 1877, Vol. I, p. 44. [p. 296]

^<"en80">[80] For Marx's criticism of Adam Smith's inconsistent theories of value, see Theories of Surplus-Value, Part I, FLPH, Moscow, no date, pp. 68-76,

91-100 and 147, and Part II, Progress Publishers, Moscow, 1968, pp. 217-22 and 401-04. [p. 297]

^<"en81">[81] The Quantulumcunque Concerning Money was written in 1682 in the form of an address to Lord Halifax and was published in London in 1695. The Political Anatomy of Ireland was written in 1672 and published in London in 1691. The latter is included in Hull, The Economic Writings of Sir William Petty, Vol. I, and the former in Hull, Vol. II. [p. 297]

^<"en82">[82] Marx is referring to the economic works of the French chemist A. L. Lavoisier: De la richesse territoriale du royaume de France, Essai sur la population de la ville de Paris, sur la richesse et ses consommations and Essai d'arithmétique politique, which was written jointly by Lavoisier and the equally celebrated French mathematician G. L. Lagrange. Marx used these works as published in Mélanges d'économie politique. . . , edited by E. Daire and G. de Molinari, Vol. I, pp. 575-620, Paris, 1847. [p. 298]

^<"en83">[83] P. Boisguillebert, Dissertation sur la nature des richesses, de l'argent et des tributs, Chapter II, in Economistes financiers du XVIII-e siècle, Paris, 1843, p. 397. [p. 299]

^<"en84">[84] John Law, an English economist and financier, tried to put into practice his absurd theory that the state can automatically increase its wealth by issuing banknotes. In 1716 he founded a private bank in France, which became a state bank in 1718. Parallel with its unlimited emission of banknotes, Law's bank withdrew coins from circulation. As a result, Stock Exchange speculation rose to an unheard-of scale and culminated in 1720 in the bankruptcy of the bank and of the Law system itself. [p. 300]

^<"en85">[85] John Locke, Some Considerations of the Consequences of the Lowering of Interests and Raising the Value of Money, in Complete Works of John Locke, Ward, Lock and Co., London, New York, 1888 (?), Vol 4 and Dudley North, Discourses Upon Trade, reprinted by the Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore, 1907. [p. 300]

^<"en86">[86] Petty, op. cit., Vol. I, pp. 47-48. [p. 301]

^<"en87">[87] In David Hume's Political Discourses, Edinburgh, 1752. The standard edition is David Hume, Essays Moral, Political and Literary edited by T. H. Green and T. H. Grose, Longmans, Green and Co., London, 1875, in 2 volumes, to which all subsequent references to Hume in these notes are made. [p. 303]

^<"en88">[88] David Hume, op. cit., Vol. I, pp. 313-14. [p. 304]

^<"en89">[89] Ibid., p. 320. [p. 306]

^<"en90">[90] Ibid., p. 321. [p. 307]

^<"en91">[91] The date is inaccurate -- the first edition of Richard Cantillon's book Essai sur la nature du commerce en général (Essay on the Nature of Trade in General ) appeared not in 1752 but in 1755, as Marx himself pointed out in Capital, Vol. I (see English ed., Moscow, 1961, Vol. I, p. 555, second footnote). Cantillon's work, edited by H. Higgs, was reprinted with an English translation by the Royal Economic Society, London, 1931. Adam Smith mentions Cantillon's book in The Wealth of Nations, edited by E. Cannan, Modern Library edition, New York, 1937, p. 68. [p. 307]

^<"en92">[92] David Hume, op. cit., p. 360. [p. 308]

^<"en93">[93] Ibid., p. 369. [p. 308]

^<"en94">[94] In 1866 Bismarck, acting through his adviser G. Wagener, requested Dühring to draw up a memorandum on the labour question for the Prussian Government. Dühring, who advocated harmony between capital and labour, complied with this request. However, his work was published without his knowledge, first anonymously, and later under Wagener's signature. This gave Dühring grounds for suing Wagener on a charge of breaking the copyright laws. In 1868 Dühring won his case. At the climax of this scandal, he published The Fate of My Memorandum on the Social Problem for the Prussian Ministry of State. [p. 309]

^<"en95">[95] F. C. Schlosser, Weltgeschichte für das deutsche Volk (World History for the German People ), Vol. 17, Frankfurt-on-Maine, 1855, p. 76. [p. 309]

^<"en96">[96] W. Cobbett, A History of the Protestant "Reformation" in England and Ireland, London, 1824, §§149, 116 and 130. [p. 309]

^<"en97">[97] Quesnay's Tableau Economique was first published in 1758 and his Analyse du Tableau in 1766. A facsimile of the original Tableau was reprinted by the British Economic Association, London, in 1894 and a facsimile of the third edition of the Tableau and the Analyse with a translation (edited by Marguerite Kuczynski and Ronald L. Meek) by MacMillan, London, in 1972. [p. 310]

^<"en98">[98] Marx also discusses Quesnay's Tableau at some length in his Theories of Surplus-Value, Part I, Moscow, no date, Chapter VI. pp. 299-334, and Addendum, pp. 367-68. In assessing the significance of the Tableau in the history of political economy, Marx says that it "was a conception of great genius, incontestably the most brilliant of which political economy up to then had been guilty" (ibid., p. 334, translation revised).

Marx gives two diagrammatic versions of the Tableau in his Theories of Surplus-Value, Part I, the first on p. 299 and the second on p. 367. The latter, a partially condensed version of that given by Quesnay in his Analyse, is reproduced here. [p. 314]

^<"en99">[99] Livre tournois -- a French coin named after the town of Tours; from 1740 onwards it was equal to one franc; in 1795 it was replaced by the franc. [p. 315]

^{<"en100">[100]} Sir James Steuart, An Inquiry into the Principles of Political Economy, in 2 volumes, edited by Andrew S. Skinner, Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh and London, 1966. [p. 323]

^{<"en101">[101]} H. C. Carey, The Past, the Present, and the Future, Philadelphia,1848, pp. 74-75. [p. 324]

^{<"en102">[102]} Lettres d'un habitant de Genève à ses contemporains (Letters of a Resident of Geneva to His Contemporaries ) is Saint-Simon's first work; it was written in Geneva in 1802 and published anonymously in Paris in 1803.
The first work of importance by Charles Fourier was Théorie des quatre mouvements et des destinées générales (Theory of the Four Movements and Destinies in General ), written early in the 19th century and published anonymously in Lyons in 1808 (the title page gives Leipzig as the place of publication, apparently for censorship reasons).
New Lanark -- a cotton mill with a workers' settlement near the town of Lanark, Scotland; it was founded in the early 1780s. [p. 329]

^{<"en103">[103]} "Lettres d'un habitant de Genève à ses contemporains" in OEuvres de Claude-Henri de Saint-Simon, Editions Anthropos, Paris, 1966, Vol. I, Book I, p. 55 and pp. 41-42. [p. 332]

^{<"en104">[104]} The eighth letter in the series: "Lettres de Henri Saint-Simon à un Américain". Ibid., Vol. I, Book II, p. 186. [p. 332]

^{<"en105">[105]} Engels is referring to the two pamphlets co-authored by Saint Simon and A. Thierry: "De la réorganisation de la société Européenne. . ." and "Opinion sur les mesures à prendre contre la coalition de 1815". The first was written in October 1814, the second in May 1815. Ibid., Vol. I, Book I, pp. 153-218 and Vol. VI, pp. 353-79. [p. 333]

^{<"en106">[106]} Obviously an allusion to Dühring's conflict with certain Berlin University professors; (see Note 7). [p. 333]

^{<"en107">[107]} See Fourier's statement in his first book, Théorie des quatre mouvements : "As a general thesis, social progress and changes in a period take place by reason of the progress of women towards freedom, and the decay of the social system takes place by reason of the decrease in women's freedom." From this he draws the following conclusion: "The extension of the rights of women is the basic principle of all social progress." (Fourier, Textes choisis, edited by F. Armand, Editions Sociales, Paris, 1953, p. 124.) [p. 334]

^{<"en108">[108]} Ibid., pp. 64-65 and 70. [p. 334]

^{<"en109">[109]} Ibid., pp. 95 and 105. For the "vicious circle" of civilization, see pp. 104 and 129-30. [p. 334]

^{<"en110">[110]} Ibid., pp. 66-67. [p. 335]

^{<"en111">[111]} See A. L. Morton, The Life and Ideas of Robert Owen, Lawrence and Wishart, London, 1962, p. 80. [p. 337]

^{<"en112">[112]} Robert Owen, "Report of the Proceedings at the Several Public Meetings, Held in Dublin . . . on the 18th March, 12th April, 19th April and 3rd May," Dublin, 1823. [p. 338]

^{<"en113">[113]} An Act, introduced on Owen's initiative in June 1815, was passed by Parliament only in July 1819 after it had been emasculated. The Act regulating labour at cotton mills banned the employment of children under the age of nine and limited the working day to 12 hours for persons under 16. Since Owen's proposal to appoint salaried factory inspectors was defeated, the Act became a dead letter. [p. 339]

^{<"en114">[114]} In October 1833 Owen presided over a congress of co-operative societies and trade unions in London, which led to the formation of the Grand National Consolidated Trades Union in Fcbruary 1834. The Union's membership grew to half a million in a few weeks. It was Owen's intention that it would take over the management of production and remake society peacefully. This utopian plan collapsed very quickly.

In face of powerful opposition from bourgeois society and the state, the Union ceased to exist in August 1834. [p. 339]

^{<"en115">[115]} Equitable Labour Exchange Bazaars were founded by workers' co-operatives in various parts of England; Owen opened the National Equitable Labour Exchange Bazaar in London in September 1832 and it existed until mid-1834.
Proudhon made an attempt to organize the Banque du Peuple in Paris in January 1849. It existed for about two months, but only on paper, as it failed before it began to function. [p. 339]

^{<"en116">[116]} W. L. Sargant, Robert Owen and His Social Philosophy, London, 1860 Owen's major works on marriage and the communist system are: The Marriage System of the New Moral World (1838), The Book of the New Moral World (1836-44) and The Revolution in the Mind and Practice of the Human Race (1849). See also A. L. Morton, op. cit., pp. 161-68 and 132-48. [p. 340]

^{<"en117">[117]} Harmony Hall -- the name of the communist colony founded by English Utopian socialists led by Robert Owen at the close of 1839 in Hampshire, England. It existed until 1845. [p. 341]

^{<"en118">[118]} In Socialism: Utopian and Scientific Engels had a note here referring to his Appendix on the Mark, which deals with the history of landed property in Germany. [p. 351]

^{<"en119">[119]} The wars of the 17th and 18th century between the major European powers for hegemony in the trade with India, the East Indies and America and for the seizure of colonial markets. At first the principal rivals were England and Holland (the Anglo-Dutch wars of 1652-54, 1664-67 and 1672-74 were typical commercial wars), and later England and France. England won these wars, and towards the close of the 18th century almost the whole of world trade was concentrated in her hands. [p. 352]

^{<"en120">[120]} A "free people's state ": this slogan is criticized in Marx's Critique of the Gotha Programme (FLP, Peking, 1972, pp. 26-29), Engels' letter to Bebel of March 18-28, 1875 (ibid., pp. 42-43), and Lenin's The State and Revolution (FLP, Peking, 1970, pp. 21-22 and 76-79). [p. 363]

^{<"en121">[121]} Robert Giffen, "Recent Accumulations of Capital in the United Kingdom", Journal of the Statistical Society, London, Vol. 16, 1878. [p. 366]

^{<"en122">[122]} See Charles Fourier, Textes choisis, Editions Sociales, Paris, 1953, p. 140. [p. 381]

^{<"en123">[123]} These words were spoken by the Roman Emperor Vespasian (A.D. 69-79) in reply to his son, who reproached him for introducing a tax on lavatories. [p. 395]

^{<"en124">[124]} Abraham Enss, a follower of Dühring and author of a lampoon of Marx and Engels written after the first chapters of Anti-Dühring appeared in Vorwärts in January-February 1877. [p. 407]

^{<"en125">[125]} The May laws adopted by the Reichstag in May 1873 established rigid state control over the Catholic Church and were the culminating point of the "cultural struggle". They were the most important link in the legislation of 1872-75 directed by Bismarck against the Catholic clergy as the mainstay of the "Centre" party, which represented the interests of the separatists in south and southwestern Germany. Police persecution evoked desperate resistance by the Catholics and gave them a halo of martyrdom. Between 1880 and 1887 the Bismarck Government was compelled first to relax and then repeal almost all the anti-Catholic laws, in order to unite all the reactionary forces against the working-class movement. [p. 412]

^{<"en126">[126]} Referendary -- in Germany a junior official, chiefly a jurist, who got his training as an apprentice at court or in a state office; usually he received no salary. [p. 421]